Power and wealth
Whoever controls raw materials can use them to exercise power. Even back in the Bronze Age, mines brought their proprietors wealth. The wealth created by mining benefited various social groups.
The relation between power and mining is a two-fold question: Who controls mining, and thereby receives a large part of that wealth, and secondly how does that wealth alter power structures in society?
Hoarding bronze
The Hoard of Oberding – about a quarter of which is displayed here – is one of the most impressive Bronze Age hoard finds. It consists of rib-shaped ingots which were buried in 80 bundles of mostly ten ingots of equal weight. The deposition resembles a cache of valuables. Was it an offering, a payment to the gods?
Coin types & mining areas
In the Middle Ages, silver was by far the most important metal for coin-making. In regions with silver mines, coins could be minted in considerable quantity and they circulated over a wide area thanks to trade. The names of the coins were widely diffused, too.
A good example is the “groschen”. The coin was first minted as the grossus denarius (“thick penny”) in Tours from 1266. The name spread through German-speaking areas in slightly altered form, largely through mintings from Tyrol (Duke Meinhard II, Merano, from 1271), Bohemia (Wenceslas II, Kutná Hora / Kuttenberg, from 1300) and Meissen (Friedrich II, Freiberg, from 1338). The coin known as the Joachimsthaler (from 1519/29) and later the taler ultimately became the dollar.
Research is ongoing. Very recently metal analyses have proved that the mines at Melle in western France were an important source of silver for the Carolingian deniers/pennies.
Silver and the glory of Saxony
The rise of the House of Wettin to one of the most powerful dynasties in Europe would not have been possible without the mining industry on the territory it controlled in what is now Saxony. From the 12th century onwards, the extraction of ore was a major source of revenue for the Wettins. The revenue came from specific taxes such as the mining tithe, a direct share in the mines, and surpluses from the mints, since all silver had to be sold to the Wettin mints below the market price.
The resources were used by the Wettins to enhance their power vis-à-vis rival noble families. As a demonstration of the resultant strength, they maintained a lavish court for centuries and had fine residences built. Saxony would not have its abundance of castles and palaces without the income from mining.
It is also evident in works of art. This figure, made from a baroque pearl, shows a singer with a cittern (in the broadest sense a guitar) and wearing a green pit hat, a leather rear apron red on the outside, and knee pads – the typical costume of the Elector’s singing miners who performed at the Saxon court and at festivities from 1693 onwards.
The ruler as the chief miner of his state
No other noble family was so intimately involved with mining as the Saxon House of Wettin was. The rich mineral resources were a cornerstone of their rule. Until well into the 17th century, mining even had a religious significance. The continual discovery of ore deposits was interpreted as a confirmation that God supported the dynasty; the ore was a blessing that only resulted from everybody involved – from the ruling family downwards – living a godly life. The Wettins accordingly saw themselves as the chief miners of the state.
Mining regulations were the monarch’s instrument for imposing his rules on the industry; they record the rights and obligations of all persons involved in mining. Duke George (1471-1539) issued these mining regulations for the town of Annaberg in 1509. Officials and shareholders submitted feedback, drawing on their practical experience. The document was then published in revised form in 1510.
Pillars of the princes’ power: mining officials
To ensure that the territorial lord’s interests were asserted and his directions followed, a complex administrative system grew up to govern mining and metallurgy in Saxony. Mining officials worked in the administration and represented the lord’s interests. As authorities on the local level, they came to play a key role at the latest through the state-controlled mining system known as the Direktionsprinzip in the 16th century. Under this principle, private capital was welcome, but all important business decisions regarding the mines were taken by the Electoral administration.
In this portrait, Friedrich Anton von Heynitz (1725-1802) gazes at us self-confidently, dressed in a magnificent uniform which he himself helped to design. He embodies the professional pride of the officials who had organised the mining industry in Saxony for over 200 years. Heynitz was for a time the chief mining official in Saxony and was involved in founding the Bergakademie in Freiberg.
Miners’ parades & symbols of rank
A miners’ parade is a procession of mining and smelting workers in march formation. Parades of this kind are first recorded in Saxony in the 16th century. They had multiple meanings. Mining industry workers taking part were able to present themselves in public as an important part of society. At the same time, parades were a demonstration of power by the monarch on whose behalf the mine workers were marching.
Over the centuries it became increasingly precisely regulated which mine worker was to march at what position in the parade and in which uniform. The parades thus became a reflection of the prevailing social order in the profession. For the individual mine worker, parades were thus a matter of pride and subordination.
Demonstrations of power
From the first documented procession in Freiberg in 1554 to the end of the monarchy in 1918, rulers from the House of Wettin inspected countless miners’ parades or took part on horseback themselves. By doing so, they acknowledged their close ties both with workers and senior officials of the mining industry. It was also a way for the Wettins to demonstrate, beyond Saxony’s borders, what wealth and power mining brought them.
In 1719 the Prince-Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus, married Maria Josepha, daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor. This enabled his father, Augustus the Strong, to forge an alliance between the House of Wettin and the imperial family. The arrival of the bridal couple in Dresden was consequently celebrated with great pomp. The highpoint was the Saturn festival, at which approximately 1,600 mine workers paraded in front of members of the European aristocracy.
Axes as a symbol of rank
The most important symbols of rank at miners’ parades were the miner’s axes. These are decorative, ceremonial axes, whose origin as a tool or weapon is unclear. With their large blades, the axes were an impressive sight for onlookers.
For the ruler and senior mining officials, special miner’s axes were manufactured as a gift or as a symbol of the dignity of their office. According to the rank of the holder, they were generally made from precious materials and in ornamental shapes. Elaborate engravings and inlays were added to make the ceremonial axes unique artefacts.
Why mining law is so important
Law exists to mitigate conflict or prevent it altogether. In German-speaking mining districts, mining law came into being separately in different territories from the 12th century onwards, and was further developed over the centuries.
These legal codes gave mine workers a relatively favourable social status. In many areas they were placed on an equal footing with the citizens of towns. This was because the respective rulers wanted to attract miners to their territory.
Mining law in written form was passed on from place to place and adapted to local conditions. The mining law of Freiberg was particularly influential throughout Central and Eastern Europe.
Innovative financial products
The mining business was risky. This also applied, financially, to investors. Historians estimate that more than 90 per cent of the mines in the Ore Mountains did not generate any significant returns. On the other hand, a few mines made their owners rich literally over night.
Therefore, in the Harz and the Ore Mountains, there was a tendency in the late Middle Ages towards dividing up the ownership of mines. This made investment in the industry more attractive because individual investors could spread their money across several mines more easily.
There were typically 128 shares in a mining company. Unlike modern shares, however, acquisition of a mining share certificate (German: Kux) brought with it the obligation to contribute further capital as long as the mine was not self-supporting. This additional payment was known as a Zubusse, or forfeit.
Success and failure in mining appeared to people to be largely a matter of chance. Failure is symbolised by this figure of a forfeit messenger from Freiberg; he demands payment of a subsidy from a mine’s owners so that work can continue there.
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